Eva Moskowitz

Eva S. Moskowitz (less commonly Eva Sarah Moskowitz, born March 4, 1964) runs Success Academy Charter Schools and is a former City Councilmember, both in New York City.

Her recent work has generally centered on education. Besides founding Success Academy Charter Schools (originally Harlem Success Academy), she has worked with the Harlem Education Fair, the Great Public Schools PAC, StudentsFirstNY, and the New York City Charter School Center. She coauthored Mission Possible (2012), mainly a guide to running charter schools. She said that American education does not fare well in international comparisons, that Black and Hispanic high school satudents were allowed to graduate without passing state-wide tests, that even in affluent districts public education is not as good as parents think it is, that education can be more rigorous, that schools should be "free from crushing bureaucracy and outlandish labor contracts", that class sizes may be a little larger so more funds are available for each class for better teaching and technology, that business managers can let principals concentrate on instructional issues, that charter schools should be placed in public noncharter school buildings to make comparisons more visible to parents, that New York City public noncharter schools may need a turnaround rather than mere reform, and that charter schools can provide a model for public noncharter schools to replicate. Replication, she said, can be based on close parental involvement in their children's education, a parent–school partnership, reading, "high-quality teaching", and "highly effective principal[s]".

In earlier work, she received a Ph.D. in history, taught in universities, authored In Therapy We Trust, and wrote a scholarly study of Betty Friedan's work.

In her electoral political career, while in the City Council she chaired the Education Committee and she later lost a primary election to be the Democratic party nominee for Manhattan Borough President. She has been opposed by the United Federation of Teachers (UFT), a union, in every election. She has had support from parents of students in her charter schools. She may run to be Mayor in 2017.

Education, teaching, and family
Moskowitz grew up in Harlem and went to school in the City's District 5. She graduated from Stuyvesant High School, where "[s]he thought half of the teachers were incompetent", according to journalist Steven Brill, found widespread student cheating and a coverup by the principal, according to journalist Jeff Coplon, and began to consider that teachers' ability to choose where they would teach based on their seniority meant that they chose Stuyvesant, where, according to Brill, "the students could teach themselves." Moskowitz was an undergraduate at the University of Pennsylvania, where, she said, a professor criticized her writing ability and she studied writing until she did it well, getting a B.A. with honors in history and influencing her prioritizing writing by her students at Success Academy Charter Schools. She received a Ph.D. in American history from Johns Hopkins University.

She taught women's history at University of Virginia as a visiting professor of communications and mass culture in 1989–1990, Vanderbilt University as an assistant professor of history in 1992–1993, and City University of New York (College of Staten Island) as an assistant professor of history in 1994–1995 and she chaired the faculty seminar in American studies at Columbia University in 1996–1999. She was the director of the children's literacy program ReadNet and taught civics at the Prep for Prep school.

She married Eric Grannis, a classmate at Stuyvesant, and they have three children, Culver, Dillon, and Hannah. She has a brother.

Success Academy Charter Schools
Moskowitz is a founder and the Chief Executive Officer of Success Academy Charter Schools. She moved to within a 10-minute walk of three of the schools and enrolled two of her children in one of the schools.

Other organizations
Before entering electoral politics, she applied to start a charter school in the Upper East Side of Manhattan, more recently telling reporter Kyle Spencer "[y]ou can live on a posh street and be zoned for a very terrible school." She withdrew the application before holding electoral office.

Moskowitz organized the Harlem Education Fair in 2009 so that students and parents could select from many charter and noncharter public schools. Success Academy Charter Schools (then known as Harlem Success Academy) and many other schools were represented there, each making their own appeals to families.

Great Public Schools Political Action Committee is run by Moskowitz; according to Brill, Moskowitz founded a PAC after a pro-Success Academy candidate lost an election. The PAC supports charter schools. In the year 2011–2012, it gave $50,000 to Andrew Cuomo 2014, Inc.

Moskowitz is on the board of StudentsFirstNY, a political campaign seeking to improve schools nationwide.

With the New York City Charter School Center, in mid-2011, Moskowitz led a parents' and students' rally to protest against the NAACP's involvement in a teachers' union's lawsuit against collocation of charter schools in noncharter public school buildings.

Views
Moskowitz said, on international comparisons of education, "[e]ven our highest-performing students are doing worse than many other countries' lowest-performing students", there's "an international crisis ... affecting the affluent neighborhoods she's now targeting just as seriously as it affects poor ones", and that "[she doesn't] think that Americans have totally digested the global competition that we're facing." She disclosed that, in 2004, 90% of Black and Hispanic students graduated from City high schools with local instead of Regents diplomas, the local diplomas not requiring passing state-wde tests. In mid-2012, Moskowitz told the N.Y. Times that "67 percent of the 1,071 elementary and middle schools in New York State have fewer than 50 percent of children passing the state reading exam." She believed in a "great, free public education", but that even in middle-class and more affluent districts public noncharter schools are not as good as parents think they are. She said children "are short but they are not stupid" and they "are incredibly smart", their minds "agile", that the need is to raise intellectual standards after which "the kids will rise to our expectation", and that "to raise the rigor bar" doesn't cost money. Moskowitz chose to start charter schools "to demonstrate the incredible difference it truly makes when a school is run free from crushing bureaucracy and outlandish labor contracts." According to her, collocating charters in buildings with noncharters lets parents more easily compare how well their children do in one and how badly in the other and so find out that noncharter schools can be better. She opposed conditioning collocation on letting noncharter schools get credit for charter students' higher test scores, referring to a law in Ohio, because it denies accountability and a quid pro quo has to be more carefully chosen. According to Brill and as interpreted by Boykin Curry, Moskowitz doubted that the New York City public school system can simply be reformed, because it may need a complete turnaround, a replacing of the traditional model with a model derived from charters. She said that public elementary school curricula are not challenging enough for students, who are bored. She, with coauthor Arin Lavinia, wrote that math curricula are paced to be taught too slowly, as if they're designed for dysfunctional schools and all schools are expected to be just as slow, and Moskowitz and Lavinia argued for speeding the teaching. She said, in 2009, that state tests are "too easy" and, in 2012, that test success would predict economic success and that "if kids do not do well on the tests, they certainly won't do well in life" but that "I wouldn't want a school that only focused on testing, partly because the tests are a low bar."

She criticized education schools for years of graduating teachers who are unable to meet urban challenges, including master's programs. She argued against lengthy, detailed, and relatively inflexible teachers' union contracts and "ossified, bureaucratic management", as overly constraining principals.

She believed in parental choice for where children go to school, including parochial and other schools. She disagreed with requiring children to go to where they are zoned. She wrote that "[while] much of the growth in excellent public schools has occurred in low-income communities .... [m]iddle-class neighborhoods [also] need more rigorous schools." She does not want to "eradicate" noncharter schools, believing they need to be modernized "educationally, operationally, financially", and she argued for competition to improve failing public schools nationwide.

She argued that, although replication is "difficult", "educational opportunity ... [is not] rocket science". Part of success was "old-fashioned parental involvement.... It has to be a partnership between parents and the school." Another was reading. She said, "[o]ur children read constantly." She said, "[a]nd the third ingredient is high-quality teaching. We have to have the very best in our school system and we have to invest in teachers so that they can get better." She favored modernization, rigor, accountability, "highly effective teacher[s,] and ... highly effective principal[s]". She argued for teachers and school leaders to have more flexibility to innovate in classrooms. She advocated for principals to be able to hire and fire teachers and to attract the best teachers. She supported decentralization in favor of teachers. She called for more disclosure and increasing principals' accountability. She said, "[w]hat you want to teach kids is to think critically, mathematically, scientifically. You want them to be great writers." According to Nat Hentoff, when she was a City Councilmember, she argued for education in civics, on how government works.

According to New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg's speechwriter and policy advisor Francis S. Barry, in 2003 or 2004 Moskowitz objected to the Mayor's proposal to keep third-graders in third grade if their math and English scores on citywide tests were "the lowest possible". According to reporter Joyce Mayer Perry, in 2004, Moskowitz did not oppose having a failing student repeat a grade but believed that intervention needed to be earlier so that children will succeed.

She advocated for charter schools to be funded per pupil as fully as public noncharters are, stating "a kid is a kid is a kid and therefore the funding should be the same".

She argued that class sizes should be reconsidered, and that allowing a few more students in a class may help in educating the students while being economical. She argued that, when a school is funded on the basis of how many students it has, a larger class size may allow paying the teacher "exceedingly well" and thus for a wider selection of candidates from whom to hire the teacher, having "really talented" principals, business managers so principals focus on instructional matters more supplies and field trips for students and teachers, computers and e-books for students, more professional development,  more tutoring, and more teaching staff, such as assistant teachers. She said that students having computers and online books leads to their reading more books. On the other hand, she agreed that a too-large class would be "absurd." Overall, she posited that class size is a factor in students' success.

She believed schools were responsible for safety, so that, when Nixzmary Brown died (largely due to her parents) after substantial absence from school, Moskowitz said that the child's school was minimally compliant with rules, if that, and did not do enough for the child's safety and therefore for the child's education.

She said teachers are asked "to fill out too much paperwork. We have a compliance-driven system, and that is not a design that organizes the school around teaching and learning."

She objected to "a tendency in the charter school movement to celebrate a lack of socio-economic diversity." She said, "I think we need many more charters that have socio-economic integration. I also think that we need to get charter schools into more affluent districts because I think many middle-class and upper middle-class parents think their schools are better than they are ... their schools are very complacent." She described New York City schools as "shockingly segregated", "[m]ost ... either more than 90 percent minority or less than 10 percent", with some schools, by offering dual-language or gifted-and-talented programs attracting white middle-class students while "overwhelmingly poor minority students" take general education, exhibit "fake integration". She added that the city's "racial and socio-economic segregation ... [is] hard to change", impeding efforts to make charter schools into neighborhood schools and still have diversity among students, but continued that "I think we will change it [the segregation] eventually because our program is so appealing to middle-class families." However, she added, "whether people can put their racial discomforts aside, I do not know", but later said "parents of all races and classes truly want diversity as long as it is also accompanied by academic excellence."

She favored closing failing public schools, including charter schools, not all charter schools being good. She posited that a charter is not a guarantee of success, as it is only a grant of freedom to try for success.

Among Moskowitz's personal views relevant to education, according to reporter Lisa M. Collins Moskowitz "says social justice drives her" and, according to Coplon, Moskowitz said "really fundamental to social justice ... [is] to have choices in life." According to columnist Rich Lowry in the conservative National Review, Moskowitz is a liberal. She supported parents at noncharter schools raising money to hire teaching assistants of their choice, opposing the teachers' union's objections. Moskowitz said she's "never met an apathetic mom." She described herself as "controversial". According to reporter Josh Rogers, she said "[i]t's actually quite unnerving to be the subject of attacks, .... [but] I'm willing to have them call me names if I can deliver for kids and families."

Moskowitz in 2010 said that the chief opponent of charters like hers was "the union-political-educational complex", "the teachers' union and the elected officials .... [who] together can ... stop you from doing a lot of ... good things for kids." She argued that charters are more threatening than when they began, partly because there are more charters, even given that not all charters are good. She favored "a federal role in education.... especially in the area of parent choice" and thought that President Obama's offering substantial money contingent on charter-centered reforms brought "the fight out" into public view, contributing to New York and some other states "lift[ing] ... caps on the creation of new charter schools".

Book
In Mission Possible (2012), which Moskowitz coauthored, according to Greg Hanlon she argued for the importance of charter schools because public noncharter education "never put[s] the customer first" and fails to "boost productivity and innovate." Hanlon said, "most of the book is a pedagogical how-to".

Elections
In the late 1990s, she volunteered in a local City Council campaign, and, in 1999, she was elected as New York City Councilmember for the Upper East Side of Manhattan. Since 2002, she chaired the Council Education Committee and, according to Moskowitz, held over "100 oversight hearings." She gained wide coverage for her positions on education and her hearings on the shortage of science classes, the seeming absence of toilet paper, and the teachers' union contracts. She also criticized contracts with principals and custodians. According to reporter Joe Williams, Moskowitz' "[p]ublic hearings on the impact of work rules and job protections for teachers, principals, and custodians ... [showed] that it took far too long to unload incompetent employees from the system" and that "other rules were silly and counterproductive", namely some for custodians. Williams said "her hearings attracted hoards of reporters and columnists" and that the then-president of the UFT, Randi Weingarten, "furious" that the Council leadership had even permitted the hearings, testified with an "often caustic exchange" with Moskowitz. Some witnesses testified only after their identities were concealed, some others refused to tesify after agreeing to, and a secret list of witnesses was known to the UFT, according to Williams. "At the time, Moskowitz was the only Democratic official in New York City who was elected without the UFT's endorsement", wrote Williams, who also reported that she was privately warned that the hearings could end her political career and that she recognized that winning citywide office in the future would be easier if she was supported and not opposed by the union. Gifford Miller, then the Council speaker, let her go forward with the hearings, Brian McLaughlin, leader of the New York City Central Labor Council, opposed them, and Bloomberg went from calling her a "gadfly" the night before the hearings to praising her courage and criticizing her critics who were Council colleagues, according to Williams. There was an effort to replace Moskowitz as committee chair, said Williams, but she served her full term. She is known as an aggressive advocate for education reform. She also tried to increase voter registration among young people through the schools. "In December 2003, Weingarten declared war on Moskowitz's political career" and urged union members to vote against her.

In 2005, Moskowitz gave up her seat and entered the race for the Democratic party nomination to be the Manhattan Borough President to succeed C. Virginia Fields, emphasizing education issues. She raised the most money of any Democratic candidate, but finished second to Scott Stringer. The teachers' union campaigned heavily for Stringer and against Moskowitz, based on Moskowitz' hearings about the teachers' contract and on other education issues. The New York Times editorialized, "The Working Families Party, a union party, intruded in several Democratic primary contests, especially the very hot one for Manhattan borough president. The mission was clearly to defeat Eva Moskowitz, a City Council member who was not considered union-friendly." According to Francis Barry, the Working Families Party spent most of the approximately $100,000 it spent on the race "to attack ... Moskowitz, who had made her name by challenging the teachers' union." The United Federation of Teachers has supported a candidate against Moskowitz in every race she has run.

Also in 2005, she endorsed Bloomberg for Mayor, joining many Democrats in doing so over Freddy Ferrer, because of the start the Mayor had made in reforming education. In 2010, she credited Bloomberg and his appointee Joel Klein as schools chancellor with education improvements.

She stated her intention to run for Mayor of New York, with, Moskowitz said, a "70 to 80 percent chance" she will run in 2017, but not 2013. Previously, she had hinted at running, in late 2011 she left open the possibility of running, in early 2012 a rumor about her running was circulating, and in mid 2012 Republicans were considering supporting her if she runs and if one of the Republicans' first choices doesn't enter the race. In mid-2012, she said, "[t]he field is not as strong as I would like it to be" and, according to reporter Colin Campbell, "Moskowitz argued that the leading 2013 mayoral candidates have failed to articulate an educational platform" and hinted that the teachers' union "may be the controlling interest" shaping campaign platforms. According to reporter Lisa Fleisher, "Moskowitz has been able to show wide support from among the parents who send students to the [Success Academy charter] schools, and she recently helped fuel a rally of thousands of parents outside City Hall." A possible issue she may raise is tax relief to offset part of the tuition for parochial and private school students, although she did not favor a voucher program such as one rejected in early 2006 by a Florida court.

Historian
Moskowitz wrote the book, In Therapy We Trust. Moskowitz, according to Jesse Eisinger, identified "three tenets: happiness is the supreme goal, problems stem from psychological causes, and those psychological problems are treatable" and labeled this set "the therapeutic gospel, a doctrine so ingrained in American society that few of us consciously recognize it". This is a summary of the book: Moskowitz argued that "we are ... bound together by a gospel of psychological happiness.... Americans turn to psychological cures as reflexively as they once turned to God. But our relationship to the psyche appears to have exceeded that of believers and become more like that of cult members." In the mid-19th to late 20th centuries, "Americans developed an intense preoccupation with psychological well-being. Today this obsession knows no bounds." By 1859, Phineas Pankhurst Quimby developed the application of psychology in his medical practice. "In the 1890s, ... mind cure, or mental therapeutics, became the rage." In the early 20th century, "an entire group of reformers began to psychologize the social problems of the day." "In their view, only by applying new psychological principles could the nation hope to solve the problems of crime, education, and home life", affecting the national "provision of social services", leading to "the extraordinary expansion of the state". Reformers recommended hiring "visiting teachers" who would understand children when some school principals still believed in "more drill". In the 1920s–1930s, marriage was to become "the fount of all human happiness", not just important, happiness requiring psychological self-awareness in both spouses and being "a matter of being free from emotional complexes and possessing a fully integrated personality." In those decades, "marriage counseling" began and marriage as a college subject was recommended for preparation for marriage, apart from graduate-level training of counselors. Scholarship led to "hundreds of books" on marriage. World War II preparation included psychologists and psychiatrists "organizing for total war." With the war's end, the government was widely believed responsible for veterans' mental health. During the Cold War, therapeutics reached "the American home", including in advertising and women's magazines. In 1960–'75, "social movements ... relied heavily on the authority of psychological experts and the tenets of the therapeutic gospel" despite claims of "hostility to conventional psychological wisdom" .... [and of being] anti-expert", as when "racial prejudice" was found to be a "social disease". President Kennedy, supporting mental wellness, signed into law Federal funding for "communities coping with the psychological effects of various social problems." E.g., "the Black Power movement was political drama with a therapeutic goal. The Black Panthers believed that it was good for the Black community to see a Black man stand up publicly to the police and declare himself unwilling to be subjected to wrongful treatment. It helped to assuage two centuries of mistreatment. It was, in a sense, a treatment for the afflictions of the Black personality". Abbie Hoffman was guided by the lessons of Abraham Maslow; Hoffman was "thoroughly immersed in the psychological thinking of the day" as a "a psychology major" and "is best known for his political antics." In feminism, "central ... were the key concepts of identity and fulfillment.... Feminists of this generation ... focused on the psychological nature of women's oppression. The colonization they discovered was interior." "The postwar culture ... was infused with a strong faith in the psyche." In the 1970s, "America's obsession [was] with feelings". The me generation tried to discard "emotional inhibition". Also in the '70s, over 15% "of all bestseller books were self-help books". "Never had there been so many ways of 'getting one's head together. In the 1980s–'90s, "all prohibitions against private or intimate matters seem to have been declared null and void." In the 1980s, the U.S. discovered' a virtual epidemic of addiction." Then, therapy and social service programs began to be replaced by cheaper recovery programs. Television talk shows featuring guests' personal revelations were hosted by Phil Donahue, Oprah Winfrey, Ricki Lake, and others with large viewerships. Online providers of therapy, support, advice, and news are numerous, round-the-clock, and popular. "Reducing the [Bill Clinton] presidency to a destructive relationship could only have happened in a country in which personal problems had become a national obsession." "The persistence of Americans' faith in psychological happiness is troubling.... [R]ather than offering real psychological insight, these cures are vapid therapies. There is little rigorous psychological thinking in our culture." "Psychological interpretations tend to crowd out social, economic, and political ones." "While I have no argument with psychological contentment as an important standard for individuals and no argument with in-depth psychological investigation as a means, when a whole society makes happiness and self-realization its rallying cry, clearly something is lost in the process." In the late 20th century, "while we worried about self-esteem, the children in America who died from gunshots outnumbered the American soldiers who died in the Vietnam War.... Starvation, illness, and warfare ravage the world while we obsess about anxiety, shyness, and denial. We must somehow shift our outlook so that we may be socially responsible." Finally, "psychological standards are insufficient to overturn the exigencies of class, race, and gender. While feminism's emphasis on women's failure to be happy in the home was helpful for upper-middle-class White women, its limitations for women of color and poor women who had already worked outside the home quickly became evident.... We need a politics and a therapeutics that are not mutually exclusive" and "we must remain critical of a therapeutics that easily displaces real solutions to pressing social problems."

She directed and produced a documentary (1997) on post-World War II women's roles. The video Some Spirit in Me (VHS 1993), authored, produced, and directed by Moskowitz, showed how the women's movement in the 1960s–1970s affected "an African-American editor at a high-profile financial magazine, a Jewish housewife, and a Hispanic social worker", among others, as women's roles were changing from those of the 1950s.

She wrote a scholarly study of Betty Friedan's work, one of only a few. It was cited as a "note[worthy]" study by Deborah Siegel.

She protested a store sign that said that unattended children will be sold as slaves, apparently resulting in the sign's removal.

Publications
These are by Moskowitz, they are generally in reverse chronological order in each subsection, and this list may not be complete.

Books

 * Coauthored by Arin Lavinia, Mission Possible: How the Secrets of the Success Academies Can Work in Any School (Jossey-Bass (imprint of Wiley), 2012) (coauthor literacy coach, Success Academy Charter Schools)
 * In Therapy We Trust: America's Obsession with Self-Fulfllment (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-8018-6403-8))

Newspapers and websites

 * Another Charter School Test Passed, in The Wall Street Journal, vol. CCLX, no. 94, October 20–21, 2012, p. A11, [§] Opinion.
 * Seeking Real Diversity In New Schools, in SchoolBook (Viewpoint), August 16, 2012, 1:14 p.m.
 * Eva Moskowitz: Feds Can Urge the Nation to Think Bigger, Be Bolder, Move Faster, in redefinED, August 16, 2012 (opinion)
 * Charter-School Envy: Spotlight on District Dysfunction, in N.Y. Post, last updated July 22, 2012, 11:41 p.m. (opinion column)
 * Charter School's Goal, in N.Y. Times, July 3, 2012 (letter of June 28, 2012) (a print version July 4, 2012 (N.Y. ed.), p. A22)
 * Unions vs. Charters, When It's Convenient, in Daily News (New York, N.Y.), June 22, 2012, 4:19 a.m. (opinion), as accessed June 23, 2012
 * The Cost of Small Class Size, in The Washington Post, March 27, 2011 (opinion), as accessed May 19, 2012
 * A To-Do List For N.Y.C. Schools Chancellor Cathie Black: Eva Moskowitz Lays Out Her Priorities (online), in Daily News (New York, N.Y.), November 15, 2010, 4:00 a.m. (opinion) (author not staff writer (newspaper byline erroneous)), as accessed May 11, 2012
 * Why West Side Needs Charters, in N.Y. Post, posted October 24, 2010, 10:42 p.m., last updated October 25, 2010, 11:04 a.m. (op-ed opinion), as accessed May 19, 2012
 * It's the UFT vs. City Parents: By Stopping Hiring of Teaching Assistants, the Union Sells Out Kids, in Daily News (New York, N.Y.), July 28, 2009 (opinion)

Reports, documentary, journals, video, and dissertation

 * Coauthored with Gifford Miller & coauthored by New York City Council, Capital Punishment: The Decay of New York City's Public School Buildings (N.Y.: N.Y.C. Council, October, 2003)
 * City Council reports:
 * Lost in Space: Science Instruction in New York City Public Schools
 * Keeping Score: Can You Judge a School by its Report Card?
 * Reading in New York City Schools
 * Good Apples: Recruiting and Retaining Quality Teachers in New York City
 * A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words: Arts Education in New York City Public Schools
 * Too Little, Too Late: Special Education in New York City
 * Fair or Foul? Physical Education in New York City Public School
 * Correcting Juvenile Injustice: A Bill of Rights for Children Released from Custody
 * From The Mouths of Babes: New York City Public School Kids Speak Out
 * The Education Budget Guide for Parents
 * The Chancellor's Regulations Guide for Parents
 * Breaking Through the Static: How to Find Information about the Safety of Your Cell Phone
 * At an Unhappy Hour: The Ten Noisiest Bars in Manhattan
 * Appeared in Council 51 (TV news series, filmed at City Hall, New York, N.Y., broadcast daily)
 * A documentary on post-World War II women's roles (1997) (Moskowitz director and producer)
 * It's Good to Blow Your Top: Women's Magazines and a Discourse of Discontent, 1945–1965, in Journal of Women's History, vol. 8, no. 3 (1996), pp. 66–98
 * The Therapeutic Gospel: Religious Medicine and the Birth of Pop Psychology, 1850–1910
 * Feminism as Performance, 1963–1970 (1995)
 * Coauthored by Thinking Eye Productions & Filmakers Library, Some Spirit in Me (N.Y.: Filmakers Library, VHS 1/2" tape video 1993) (58 minutes; cinematography by Sarah Nazimova; as stated in WorldCat's entry for responsibility, "Thinking Eye Productions presents ... a historical documentary produced and directed by Eva Moskowitz") (as stated in WorldCat's abstract, "[a] look at the feminist movement from the point of view of women who were not high-profile activitists [sic], but whose lives were affected by the changes in society.")
 * Naming the Problem: How Popular Culture and Experts Paved the Way For "personal politics" (Md.: Johns Hopkins Univ., 1992 (ProQuest document ID 303994013)) (Ph.D. dissertation)